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A note for ACAPS, by Aldo Benini, A. (2018). PDF available at https://www.acaps.org/sites/acaps/files/resources/files/20180115_acaps_technical_note_subjective_measures_full_report.pdf

Purpose and motivation

This note seeks to sensitize analysts to the growing momentum of subjective methods and measures around, and eventually inside, the humanitarian field. It clarifies the nature of subjective measures and their place in humanitarian needs assessments. It weighs their strengths and challenges. It discusses, in considerable depth, a small number of instruments and methods that are ready, or have good potential, for humanitarian analysis.

Post World War II culture and society have seen an acceleration of subjectivity in all institutional realms, although at variable paces. The sciences responded with considerable lag. They have created new methodologies – “mixed methods” (quantitative and qualitative), “subjective measures”, self-assessments of all kinds – that claim an equal playing field with distant, mechanical objectivity. For the period 2000-2012, using the search term “subjective measure”, Google Scholar returns around 600 references per year; for the period 2013 – fall 2017, the figure quintuples to 3,000. Since 2012, the United Nations has been publishing the annual World Happiness Report; its first edition discusses validity and reliability of subjective measures at length.

Closer to the humanitarian domain, poverty measurement has increasingly appreciated subjective data. Humanitarian analysis is at the initial stages of feeling the change. Adding “AND humanitarian” to the above search term produces 8 references per year for the first period, and 40 for the second – a trickle, but undeniably an increase. Other searches confirm the intuition that something is happening below the surface; for instance, “mixed method  AND humanitarian” returns 110 per year in the first, and 640 in the second period – a growth similar to that of “subjective measures”.

Still in some quarters subjectivity remains suspect. Language matters. Some collaborations on subjective measures have preferred billing them as “experience-based measures”. Who doubts experience? It is good salesmanship, but we stay with “subjective” unless the official name of the measure contains “experience”.

What follows 

We proceed as follows: In the foundational part, we discuss the nature of, motivation for, and reservations against, subjective measures. We provide illustrations from poverty measurement and from food insecurity studies. In the second part, we present three tools – scales, vignettes and hypothetical questions – with generic pointers as well as with specific case studies. We conclude with recommendations and by noting instruments that we have not covered, but which are likely to grow more important in years to come

Rick Davies comment: High recommended!

WHAT IS PRISM?

PRISM is a toolkit that aims to support small/medium-sized conservation projects to effectively evaluate the outcomes and impacts of their work.

The toolkit has been developed by a collaboration of several conservation NGOs with additional input from scientists and practitioners from across the conservation sector.

The toolkit is divided into four main sections:

Introduction and Key Concepts: Provides a basic overview of the theory behind evaluation relevant to small/medium-sized conservation projects

Designing and Implementing the Evaluation: Guides users through a simple, step by step process for evaluating project outcomes and impacts, including identifying what you need to evaluate, how to collect evaluation data, analysing/interpreting results and deciding what to do next.

Modules: Provides users with additional guidance and directs users towards methods for evaluating outcomes/impacts resulting from five different kinds of conservation action:

• Awareness and Attitudes
• Capacity Development
• Livelihoods and Governance
• Policy
• Species and Habitat Management

Method factsheets: Outlines over 60 practical, easy to use methods and supplementary guidance factsheets for collecting, analysing and interpreting evaluation data

Toolkit Website: https://conservationevaluation.org/
PDF copy of manual- Download request form: https://conservationevaluation.org/download/

Recently noted papers of interest on my Twitter feed:

• Go Forth and Replicate: On Creating Incentives for Repeat Studies. Scientists have few direct incentives to replicate other researchers’ work, including precious little funding to do replications. Can that change? 09.11.2017 / BY Michael Schulson
  • “A survey of 1,500 scientists, conducted by the journal Nature last year, suggested that researchers often weren’t telling their colleagues — let alone publishing the results — when other researchers’ findings failed to replicate.”… “Each year, the [US] federal government spends more than $30 billion on basic scientific research. Universities and private foundations spend around $20 billion more, according to one estimate. Virtually none of that money is earmarked for research replication”…”In reality, major scientific communities have been beset these last several years over inadequate replication, with some studies heralded as groundbreaking exerting their influence in the scientific literature — sometimes for years, and with thousands of citations — before anyone bothers to reproduce the experiments and discover that they don’t hold water. In fields ranging from cancer biology to social psychology, there’s mounting evidence that replication does not happen nearly enough. The term “replication crisis” is now well on its way to becoming a household phrase.”
• WHEN GOVERNMENT RULES BY SOFTWARE, CITIZENS ARE LEFT IN THE DARK. TOM SIMONITE, WIRED, BUSINESS, 08.17.1707:00 AM
  • “Most governments the professors queried didn’t appear to have the expertise to properly consider or answer questions about the predictive algorithms they use”…”Researchers believe predictive algorithms are growing more prevalent – and more complex. “I think that probably makes things harder,” says Goodman.”…”Danielle Citron, a law professor at the University of Maryland, says that pressure from state attorneys general, court cases, and even legislation will be necessary to change how local governments think about, and use, such algorithms. “Part of it has to come from law,” she says. “Ethics and best practices never gets us over the line because the incentives just aren’t there.”
• The evolution of machine learning. Posted Aug 8, 2017 by Catherine Dong (@catzdong) TechCrunch
  • “Machine learning engineering happens in three stages — data processing, model building and deployment and monitoring. In the middle we have the meat of the pipeline, the model, which is the machine learning algorithm that learns to predict given input data.The first stage involves cleaning and formatting vast amounts of data to be fed into the model. The last stage involves careful deployment and monitoring of the model. We found that most of the engineering time in AI is not actually spent on building machine learning models — it’s spent preparing and monitoring those models.Despite the focus on deep learning at the big tech company AI research labs, most applications of machine learning at these same companies do not rely on neural networks and instead use traditional machine learning models. The most common models include linear/logistic regression, random forests and boosted decision trees.”
• The Most Crucial Design Job Of The Future. What is a data ethnographer, and why is it poised to become so important? 2017.7.24 BY CAROLINE SINDERS. Co-Design
  • Why we need meta data (data about the data we are using). “I advocate we need data ethnography, a term I define as the study of the data that feeds technology, looking at it from a cultural perspective as well as a data science perspective”…”Data is a reflection of society, and it is not neutral; it is as complex as the people who make it.”
• The Mystery of Mixing Methods. Despite significant progress on mixed methods approaches, their application continues to be (partly) shrouded in mystery, and the concept itself can be subject to misuse. March 28, 2017 By Jos Vaessen. IEG
  • “The lack of an explicit (and comprehensive) understanding of the principles underlying mixed methods inquiry has led to some confusion and even misuses of the concept in the international evaluation community.”
  • Three types of misuse (
  • Five valid reasons for using mixed methods: (Triangulation, Complementarity, Development, Initiation, Expansion)
• To err is algorithm: Algorithmic fallibility and economic organisation. Wednesday, 10 May 2017. NESTA
  • We should not stop using algorithms simply because they make errors. Without them, many popular and useful services would be unviable. However, we need to recognise that algorithms are fallible and that their failures have costs. This points at an important trade-off between more (algorithm-enabled) beneficial decisions and more (algorithm-caused) costly errors. Where lies the balance?Economics is the science of trade-offs, so why not think about this topic like economists? This is what I have done ahead of this blog, creating three simple economics vignettes that look at key aspects of algorithmic decision-making. These are the key questions:Risk: when should we leave decisions to algorithms, and how accurate do those algorithms need to be?
    Supervision: How do we combine human and machine intelligence to achieve desired outcomes?
    Scale: What factors enable and constrain our ability to ramp-up algorithmic decision-making?
• A taxonomy of algorithmic accountability. Cory Doctorow / 6:20 am Wed May 31, 2017 Boing Boing
  • “Eminent computer scientist Ed Felten has posted a short, extremely useful taxonomy of four ways that an algorithm can fail to be accountable to the people whose lives it affects: it can be protected by claims of confidentiality (“how it works is a trade secret”); by complexity (“you wouldn’t understand how it works”); unreasonableness (“we consider factors supported by data, even when you there’s no obvious correlation”); and injustice (“it seems impossible to explain how the algorithm is consistent with law or ethics”)”

This is a question posed by Michael Bamberger in his blog posting on the MERL Tech website, titled Building bridges between evaluators and big data analysts. There he puts forward eight reasons (4 main ones and 4 subsidiary points). None of which I disagree with. But I have my own perspective on the same question and posted the following points as a Comment underneath his blog posting.

My take on “Why have evaluators been slow to adopt big data analytics?”

1. “Big data? I am having enough trouble finding any useful data! How to analyse big data is ‘a problem we would like to have’” This is what I suspect many evaluators are thinking.

2. “Data mining is BAD” – because data mining is seen as by evaluators something that is ad hoc and non-transparent. Whereas the best data mining practices are systematic and transparent.

3. “Correlation does not mean causation” – many evaluators have not updated this formulation to the more useful “Association is a necessary but insufficient basis for a strong causal claim”

4. Evaluators focus on explanatory models and do not give much attention to the uses of predictive models, but both are useful in the real world, including the combination of both. Some predictive models can become explanatory models, through follow-up within-case investigations.

5. Lack of appreciation of the limits of manual hypothesis formulation and testing (useful as it can be) as a means of accumulating knowledge. In a project with four outputs and four outcomes there can be 16 different individual causal links between outputs and outcomes, but 2 to the power of 16 possible combinations of these causal links. That’s a lot of theories to choose from (65,536). In this context, search algorithms can be very useful.

6. Lack of knowledge and confidence in the use of machine learning software. There is still work to be done to make this software more user friendly. Rapid Miner, BigML, and EvalC3 are heading in the right direction.

7. Most evaluators probably don’t know that you can use the above software on small data sets. They don’t only work with large data sets. Yesterday I was using EvalC3 with a data set describing 25 cases only.

8. The difficulty of understanding some machine learning findings. Decision tree models (one means of machine learning) are eminently readable, but few can explain the internal logic of specific prediction models generated by artificial neural networks (another means of machine learning, often used for classification of images). Lack of explainability presents a major problem for public accountability. Public accountability for the behavior and use of algorithms is shaping up to be a BIG issue, as highlighted in this week’s Economist Leader article on advances in facial recognition software: What machines can tell from your face

Update: 2017 09 19: See Michael Bamberger’s response to my comments above in the Comment section below. They are copied from his original response posted here http://merltech.org/building-bridges-between-evaluators-and-big-data-analysts/

No, history did not begin three years ago ;-)

“It was twenty years ago today…” well almost. Here is a link to my 1998 PhD Thesis of the above title. It was based on field work I carried out in Bangladesh between 1992 and 1995. Chapter 8 describes the first implementation of what later became the Most Significant Change impact monitoring technique. But there is a lot more of value in this thesis as well, including analysis of the organisational learning literature up to that date, an analysis of the Bangladesh NGO sector in the early 1990s, and a summary of thinking about evolutionary epistemology. Unlike all too many PhDs, this one was useful, even for the immediate subjects of my field work. CCDB was still using the impact monitoring process I helped them set up (i.e. MSC)  when I visited them again in the early 2000’s, albeit with some modifications to suit its expanded use.

Abstract: The aim of this thesis is to develop a coherent theory of organisational learning which can generate practical means of assisting organisational learning. The thesis develops and applies this theory to one class of organisations known as non-government organisations (NGOs), and more specifically to those NGOs who receive funds from high income countries but who work for the benefit of the poor in low income countries. Of central concern are the processes whereby these NGOs learn from the rural and urban poor with whom they work.
The basis of the theory of organisational learning used in this thesis is modern evolutionary theory, and more particularly, evolutionary epistemology. It is argued that this theory provides a means of both representing and assisting organisational learning. Firstly, it provides a simple definition of learning that can be operationalised at multiple scales of analysis: that of individuals, organisations, and populations of organisations. Differences in the forms of organisational learning that do take place can be represented using a number of observable attributes of learning which are derived from an interpretation of evolutionary theory. The same evolutionary theory can also provide useful explanations of processes thus defined and represented. Secondly, an analysis of organisational learning using these observable attributes and background theory also suggest two ways in which organisational learning can be assisted. One is the use of specific methods within NGOs: a type of participatory monitoring. The second is the use of particular interventions by their donors: demands for particular types of information which are indicative of how and where the NGO is learning In addition to these practical implications, it is argued that a specific concern with organisational learning can be related to a wider problematic which should be of concern to Development Studies: one which is described as “the management of diversity”. Individual theories, organisations, and larger social structures may not survive in the face of diversity and change. In surviving they may constrain and / or enable other agents, with feedback effects into the scale and forms of diversity possible. The management of diversity can be analysed descriptively and prescriptively, at multiple scales of aggregation.

This post should feature a continually updated feed of all Twitter tweets tagged as: #evaluation

#evaluation Tweets

Kenya Heard, Elisabeth O’Toole, Rohit Naimpally, Lindsey Bressler. J-PAL North America, April 2017. pdf copy here

INTRODUCTION
Randomized evaluations, also called randomized controlled trials (RCTs), have received increasing attention from practitioners, policymakers, and researchers due to their high credibility in estimating the causal impacts of programs and policies. In a randomized evaluation, a random selection of individuals from a sample pool is offered a program or service, while the remainder of the pool does not receive an offer to participate in the program or service. Random assignment ensures that, with a large enough sample size, the two groups (treatment and control) are similar on average before the start of the program. Since members of the groups do not differ systematically at the outset of the experiment, any difference that subsequently arises between the groups can be attributed to the intervention rather than to other factors.

Researchers, practitioners, and policymakers face many real-world challenges while designing and implementing randomized evaluations. Fortunately, several of these challenges can be addressed by designing a randomized evaluation that accommodates existing programs and addresses implementation challenges.

Program design challenges: Certain features of a program may present challenges to using a randomized evaluation design. This document showcases four of these program features and demonstrates how to alter the design of an evaluation to accommodate them.
• Resources exist to extend the program to everyone in the study area
• Program has strict eligibility criteria
• Program is an entitlement
• Sample size is small

Implementation challenges: There are a few challenges that may threaten a randomized evaluation when a program or policy is being implemented. This document features two implementation challenges and demonstrates how to design a randomized evaluation that mitigates threats and eliminates difficulties in the implementation phase of an evaluation.
• It is difficult for service providers to adhere to random assignment due to logistical or political reasons
• The control group finds out about the treatment, benefits from the treatment, or is harmed by the treatment

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………….. 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………. 4
PROGRAM DESIGN CHALLENGES ……………………………………………………………. 5
Challenge #1: Resources exist to extend the program to everyone in the study area…………… 5
Challenge #2: Program has strict eligibility criteria …………………………………… 9
Challenge #3: Program is an entitlement…………………………………………………12
Challenge #4: Sample size is small …………………………………………………….16
IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES……………………………………………………………..20
Challenge #5: It is difficult for service providers to adhere to random assignment due to logistical
or political reasons …………………………………………………………………20
Challenge #6: Control group finds out about the treatment, benefits from the treatment,
or is harmed by the treatment………………………………………………………….23
SUMMARY TABLE ……………………………………………………………………….27
GLOSSARY ……………………………………………………………………………28
REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………….29

/p>

Emily Namey, R&E Search for Evidence http://researchforevidence.fhi360.org/author/enamey

“The first two posts in this series describe commonly used research sampling strategies and provide some guidance on how to choose from this range of sampling methods. Here we delve further into the sampling world and address sample sizes for qualitative research and evaluation projects. Specifically, we address the often-asked question: How many in-depth interviews/focus groups do I need to conduct for my study?

Within the qualitative literature (and community of practice), the concept of “saturation” – the point when incoming data produce little or no new information – is the well-accepted standard by which sample sizes for qualitative inquiry are determined (Guest et al. 2006; Guest and MacQueen 2008). There’s just one small problem with this: saturation, by definition, can be determined only during or after data analysis. And most of us need to justify our sample sizes (to funders, ethics committees, etc.) before collecting data!

Until relatively recently, researchers and evaluators had to rely on rules of thumb or their personal experiences to estimate how many qualitative data collection events they needed for a study; empirical data to support these sample sizes were virtually non-existent. This began to change a little over a decade ago. Morgan and colleagues (2002) decided to plot (and publish!) the number of new concepts identified in successive interviews across four datasets. They found that nearly no new concepts were found after 20 interviews. Extrapolating from their data, we see that the first five to six in-depth interviews produced the majority of new data, and approximately 80% to 92% of concepts were identified within the first 10 interviews.

Emily’s blog continues here http://researchforevidence.fhi360.org/riddle-me-this-how-many-interviews-or-focus-groups-are-enough

Dizekes, P. (2017). Better wisdom from crowds. MIT Office News. Retrieved from http://news.mit.edu/2017/algorithm-better-wisdom-crowds-0125  PDF copy pdf copy

Ross, E. (n.d.). How to find the right answer when the “wisdom of the crowd” fails. Nature News. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2017.21370

Context: “This report represents a basis for integrating big data and data analytics in the monitoring and evaluation of development programmes. The report proposes a Call to Action, which hopes to inspire development agencies and particularly evaluators to collaborate with data scientists and analysts in the exploration and application of new data sources, methods, and technologies. Most of the applications of big data in international development do not currently focus directly on monitoring, and even less on evaluation. Instead they relate more to research, planning and operational use using big data. Many development agencies are still in the process of defining their policies on big data and it can be anticipated that applications to the monitoring and evaluation of development programmes will start to be incorporated more widely in the near future. This report includes examples and ways that big data, together with related information and communications technologies (ICTs) are already being used in programme monitoring, evaluation and learning. The data revolution has been underway for perhaps a decade now. One implication for international development is that new sources of real–time information about people are for the first time available and accessible. In 2015, in an unprecedented, inclusive and open process, 193 members states of the United Nations adopted, by consensus, the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development. The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) contained in the 2030 Agenda constitute a transformative plan for people, planet, prosperity, partnerships and peace. All of these factors are creating a greater demand for new complexity–responsive evaluation designs that are flexible, cost effective and provide real–time information. At the same time, the rapid and exciting developments in the areas of new information technology (big data, information and communications technologies) are creating the expectation, that the capacity to collect and analyse larger and more complex kinds of data, is increasing. The report reviews the opportunities and challenges for M&E in this new, increasingly digital international development context. The SDGs are used to illustrate the need to rethink current approaches to M&E practices, which are no longer able to address the complexities of evaluation and interaction among the 17 Goals. This endeavour hopes to provide a framework for monitoring and evaluation practitioners in taking advantage of the data revolution to improve the design of their programmes and projects to support the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals and the 2030 Agenda.”

Rick Davies comment: As well as my general interest in this paper, I have two particular interests in its contents. One is what it says about small  (rather than big) data and how big data analysis techniques may be relevant to the analysis of small data sets. In my experience many development agencies have rather small data sets, which are often riddle with missing data points. The other is what the paper has to say about predictive analytics, a field of analysis (within data mining defined more widely) that I think has a lot of relevance to M&E of development programmes.

Re the references to predictive analytics, I was disappointed to see this explanation on page 48: “Predictive analytics (PA) uses patterns of associations among variables to predict future trends. The predictive models are usually based on Bayesian statistics and identify the probability distributions for different outcomes“.  In my understanding  Bayesian classification algorithms are only one of a number of predictive analytics tools which generate classifications (read predictive models). Here  are some some classifications of the different algorithms that are available: (a) Example A, focused on classification algorithms – with some limitations, (b) Example B, looking at classification algorithms within the wider ambit of data mining methods, from Maimon and Rokach (2010; p.6) . Bamberger’s narrow definition is an unfortunate because there are simpler and more transparent methods available, such as Decision Trees, which would be easier for many evaluators to use and whose results could be more easily communicated to their clients.

Re my first interest re small data, I was more pleased to see this statement: “While some data analytics are based on the mining of very large data sets with very large numbers of cases and variables, it is also possible to apply many of the techniques such as predictive modelling with smaller data sets” This heightens the importance of clearly spelling out the different ways in which predictive analytics work can be done.

I was also agreeing with the follow on paragraph:  “While predictive analytics are well developed, much less progress has been made on causal (attribution) analysis. Commercial predictive analytics tends to focus on what happened, or is predicted to happen (e.g. click rates on web sites), with much less attention to why outcomes change in response to variations in inputs (e.g. the wording or visual presentation of an on–line message). From the evaluation perspective, a limitation of predictive analysis is that it is not normally based on a theoretical framework, such as a theory of change, which explains the process through which outcomes are likely to be achieved. This is an area where there is great potential for collaboration between big data analytics and current impact evaluation methodologies” My approach to connecting these two types of analysis is explained on the EvalC3 website. This involves connecting cross-case analysis (using predictive analytics tools, for example) to within-case analysis (using process tracing or simpler tools, for example) through carefully thought though case selection and comparison strategies.

My interest and argument for focusing more on small data was reinforced when I saw this plausible and likely situation: “The limited access of many agencies to big data is another major consideration” (p69) – not a minor issue in a paper on the use and uses of big data! Though the paper does highlight the many and varied sources that are becoming increasingly available, and the risks and opportunities associated with their use.